Intellectual Development Of Children Essays - Child Development

Intellectual Development Of Children In two separate issues of "Time" magazine, the intellectual development of infants and preschoolers was analyzed with contrasting viewpoints regarding the development of their brains and the views regarding how best to encourage the cognitive abilities of these young children. In the earlier issue, dated February 3, 1997, the special report consisting of two articles titled "Fertile Minds" and "The Day-Care Dilemma" the theories of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development are supported. In the latter issue, dated October 19, 1998, the special report titled "How to Make a Better Student" focused on refuting the theories supported in the earlier issue of this magazine. Understanding the influence of Piaget's and other's views on intellectual development of young children on the contrasting views of this topic and how it reflects contemporary opinions on how young children should be raised is the focus of this paper. Hopefully, these contrasting articles will provide a more holistic understanding of Piagetian theory and its application to real-life situations. I. Children's Intellectual Development: Preoperations By the age of 3 and 4 years old, children have attained what Piaget called functions or "preoperations" that enable young children to perform a number of feats far beyond the capabilities of infants (Piaget, 1950). Infants concentrate on constructing a world of permanent objects. Once constructed, these objects will be known to exist even when they are no longer present to the infant's senses. Preschool children, in contrast, are constructing a world of qualities and properties that different objects share in common. They are beginning to identify and name colors, shapes, textures, density, and so on. At this stage, children are beginning to understand same and different as these terms refer to properties. At the same time, it is necessary to recognize that these classes are formed only on the basis of perceptual attributes such as color and form and not on the basis of any quantitative characteristics. Moreover, although children can name and identify members of different classes cow, dog, or car, they cannot as yet operate on these categories in a systematic way. That is to say they cannot logically add categories and recognize that cats, dogs, and cows are all animals. Nor can they logically multiply classes and appreciate that a cat is both a cat and an animal at the same time. In short, the one-many or quantitative dimension of classes escapes young children. Only when they have attained the concrete operations of childhood (age 6 to 7 years) will they begin to be able to coordinate sameness and difference and arrive at the notion of a unit that is basic to all quantitative thinking. A unit, for example the number 3, is at once like every other number in that it is a number but also different in that it is the only number that comes after 2 and before 4. Once children have a notion of a unit, they can engage in numerical as well as logical addition and multiplication (Gesell, 1949). The young child's limitation with respect to operating on classes is most evident when we ask them to define a word. Young children routinely define words by describing their functions; an apple is to eat; a bike is to ride. Only when they attain concrete operations at about the age of 6 or 7 years will they begin to define terms by nesting them in higher order classes, where an apple is a fruit, and a bike has wheels--you go places with it. Occasionally young children may define a word by placing it within a broader context, but this is often an anticipation of later intellectual achievement, not a true reflection of the young child's competence (Carey, 1989). In the "Fertile Minds" and "The Day-Care Dilemma" articles, neuroscientific evidence is used to comply with Piagetian theory of preoperational stages of development. The article describes in depth how the rapidly proliferating brain cells at birth make connections that shape a lifetime of experience. Thus, the author of this article points at that the first three to four years of development are critical and that "there is an urgent need . . . for preschool programs designed to boost the brain power of youngsters" (Nash, 1997, p.51) This argument is supported by hard, quantifiable evidence in the form of PET scans. Furthermore, the use of Piagetian tools to be incorporated in the education of toddlers in day-cares is stated to be a means that society can use to promote the intellectual development of young children who live in conditions that are a threat to their brain

Law and Order Scenerio essays

Law and Order Scenerio essays A young teenage girl by the name of Jackie Lendrix is raped, and an older woman by the name of Karen is murdered and raped in the same area. After she is raped the police start questioning everyone that is a suspect. Jackie tells the D.A. that she was blind folded and couldnt see who it was. The first to be suspected is Mr. Randal. Her dad rents a room in there house to this forty year old man. To make things look more suspicious to the cops is that the room is right next to Jackies. The cops ask if they can have a DNA sample. Mr. Randal agrees. The police find two matches of the DNA which was retrieved from Jackie. Mr. Randals DNA matched it, but so did his friends Charles Enos. Before they question Mr. Randal again, they question Mr. Enos. The police tell him that the DNA found in Jackie was his. He told the police, Why would he want jail bait when he can get it from her mom. The police then question Mr. Randal again. They tell him that the DNA he gave them was the same DNA found in Jackie. He claims that he has sex with the mother for money from Tom her husband. The police have an idea that the dad is sick minded and might be a sexual obsessive Narcissus. He might just use the kids as vicaress sexual partners. The children wont say anything about their parents actions because they love them. This is called child sexual abusive commendation syndrome. The police quickly put their children to a safe house. While picking them up, they find out that Mr. Lendrix has two kids from a different man. To make things worst, Tom is the one that insisted she should have kids from other men to keep their family going. They question Tom. He denies any such action of hurting his girls in anyway. After questioning Tom, the police go to the safe house to question Jackie. Jackie then opens up and tells them that her dad forced a syringe in her vagina. She told him to stop, bu...

Assignemnt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Assignemnt - Essay Example Entrepreneurs face several problems and difficulties while planning to start a new business in a new country. Entrepreneurs need to proper research regarding start of a business in a foreign country in a proper way in order to be successful. â€Å"A typical analysis will cover the history of the industry, including discussions of key dates, historic growth patterns, and other matters† (Smith). In this paper, we will discuss ten most relevant problems and difficulties that an entrepreneur in the U.A.E, particularly in Dubai, can face while going on to start a new restaurant. Ten Most Influencing Difficulties for Entrepreneurs Some of the commonly observed difficulties which entrepreneurs are likely to face in the United Arab Emirates include finding relevant information, inadequacy of information, obtaining trade license, developing taste for local people, recruiting key workers, cultural problems, increase in the competition, reduced inflow of foreigners, less capital, and div erse customer base. Let us discuss all of these issues in some detail in order to get a better understanding of how these problems affect entrepreneurs. ... It is a common misperception that the financial recession has only impacted the financial markets. While there is no doubt that the impact has been very severe on the financial markets, but there has been a very severe impact on the consumer sector as well. The sectors such as construction, automobile, textile, and food have also suffered because of the financial crisis. â€Å"With the recent hit by the global economy crisis, many have lost their daily jobs during that period† (Goh). Therefore, we can say that the recent economic crisis has not only put an adverse impact on different sectors and industries but also it has affected the employment conditions of almost every country. Dubai and the Recent Economic Crisis Dubai is that part of the world, which was heavily affected by the current economic recession. The most affected sector in Dubai was real estate. â€Å"The real estate bubble that propelled the frenetic expansion of Dubai on the back of borrowed cash and speculat ive investment, has burst† (Lewis). Many companies had to stop their large-scale construction projects due to adverse impact of economic crisis on the economy of Dubai. A large part of the government’s spending was also in the real estate construction and development sector. With this decrease in the flow of capital, the economy of Dubai became relatively slow. Therefore, this is also an important factor why most of the entrepreneurs find it difficult to invest in Dubai now because investment in the restaurant business heavily relies on stable economic conditions. Restaurant Business The restaurant business has a great cultural significance when it comes to Dubai. This is because the city has always been marketed as

Regions Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Regions - Research Paper Example The research also analyzed the government involvement in promoting good relations between the people and the international capital market. The research examined the relations in the fisheries, mining, and equipment applied and the overall contribution to the growth of the economy. The researchers based their arguments on the literatures published on the canoe trade in Central American Mosquitia region. It then contrasted the literatures with the contribution of the canoe trade to the economic and social relations development. The researchers analyzed the statistical data on the region and drew the relevant conclusions. The trade practices open up a people’s imagination and appreciation of the motives of trade, that is, profit oriented. The trade between the international markets and the remote isolated rural populations re-synthesizes the aspects of the people’s livelihoods. The objective of this research is to establish the dependence of wealth generation to the social relationships between the trading parties. The economic growth of a particular region depends on the trade activities of that region. Trade results into the exchange of cultural activities and crucial information between the partners. The information opens up the people’s perception of the natural phenomena and hence appreciates the essence of trade activities and good relations. The research herein reviewed three resources and drafted reasonable conclusions. Analysis of trading activities takes into account the measures put across to help establish the favorable business culture. Sound infrastructural facilities, equipments and social relations are essential aspects for consideration. Trade promotes the economic growth, which in effect promotes establishments of social amenities such as education centers. The investors also introduce endogenous projects into the regions that promote the rural development in effect. The development takes into

Presidential Nomination Races Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Presidential Nomination Races - Essay Example As the preferred son of Ohio, Rutherford B. Hayes had much in his favor in the 1876 race. Both reform and regular Republicans liked him. This was because he was a war hero, who had supported Radical Reconstruction lawmaking and campaigned for Negro suffrage, and emanated from a big swing state (Rutland, 1996). His repute for honesty was exceptional, and his backing of bipartisan boards of state institutions commended him to reformers. Hayes understood that "availability" was his utmost strength. "Availability" worked for Hayes since James G. Blaine, the prime candidate and the preferred nominee for partisan Republicans, was blemished by accusations of corruption. Another contender, Oliver P. Morton, Radical’s favorite, was in ill health. Mr. Benjamin H. Bristow, the favorite nominee of reformers was a denunciation to Grant and Roscoe Conkling, the typical spoils politician, was undesirable to Blaine and to reformers. This meant that none of the contenders could assemble the vo tes of the mainstream convention. Through the fifth ballot, Hayes had collected votes, and by the seventh, he had finalized the nomination. By 1875, the Republican Party was in trouble. A severe economic dejection followed the Panic of 1873 and outrages in the Grant administration had smudged the party's reputation. This led to rising unemployment, falling crop prices and corruption in high places. This augured ill for the Republicans. Ohio Republicans turned to Hayes, their superlative vote-getter, to run against the inescapable Democratic governor.

Supply Chain Management The Bullwhip Effect Commerce Essay

Supply Chain Management The Bullwhip Effect Commerce Essay In recent years in the supply chain management theory there has been done a lot of research over the phenomenon called the Bullwhip effect In brief, this negative effect occurs when the demand order variabilities in the supply chain are amplified as they moved up the supply chain (Lee et. al, 1997a) and can lead to such big inefficiencies as lost revenues and poor customer service. Many of the authors in their scientific papers contributed a lot to the development of the topic by describing the Bullwhip effect, explaining and evaluating its reasons, its implications and possible ways of its reduction, using higher mathematics (Chen et. al, 1999; Dejonckheere et. al, 2001; Warburton, 2004; Croson Donohue, 2003) and specialized software (like SISCO) (Chatfield et al., 2004) to create simulation models. In our brief overview, however, we will not consider all of these particularized mathematical studies in detail, we will just try to focus on the more theoretical explanation of the neg ative implications of the Bullwhip effect, the possible reasons of its existence, and on the ways of its reduction. In this respect, we think that among all of the respected scientists that devoted their efforts to the Bullwhip effect research, the authors Hau L. Lee, V. Padmanabhan, and Seungjin Whang in their articles The Bullwhip Effect in Supply Chains (1997) and Information Distortion in a Supply Chain: The Bullwhip effect (1997) have not only most profoundly described and explained the notion of the phenomenon of the Bullwhip effect and the reasons of its existence, but also introduced the most valuable and applicable ways of how to diminish its negative consequences. The essay consists of 3 main chapters: the first chapter describes the notion and the implications of the Bullwhip effect, in the second chapter the reasons for its existence are discussed, and the third chapter refers to the ways how to reduce the Bullwhip effect. 1. Implications of the Bullwhip effect There are some different definitions and ways of understanding of so called Bullwhip effect (it can also be referred to as Whiplash effect or Whipsaw effect in some sources). This phenomenon was first established by Forrester (1961). The Bullwhip effect can appear in every industry and in every supply chain. The Bullwhip effect is a consequence of one or a combination of the following four important aspects related to supply chain management, which are, according to Lee et al., demand forecast updating by supply chain partners; order batching; price fluctuation; rationing and shortage gaming. Small order variability on a customer level amplifies the orders for upstream players, such as wholesales and manufacturers, as the orders move up along a supply chain (Paik et al., 2007). As shown in the Figure 1, when consumer sales have really small fluctuations, the retailers demand fluctuates more, the wholesalers demand fluctuates more than the retailers demand and manufacturers demand fluctuates even more than wholesalers demand. (Lee et al., 1997a). According to Forrester, variability of customer orders is usually less than variability of manufacturing orders. To his opinion the main reason for this situation is the irrational behavior of participants involved in a supply chain (Paik et al., 2007). The Bullwhip effect can be observed on different levels: on macro level it shows up in inefficiency in production, scheduling, sourcing, distribution, revenue generalization and its realization (Ravichandran, 2008). on operation level, it reflects in generation of more inventory and keeping it in inappropriate place, to meet a specified service level (Ravichandran, 2008). on performance level, it can reduce the velocity of cash, destroy potential revenue and erode revenue realization (Ravichandran, 2008). These are just some negative consequences of the Bullwhip effect (Carlsson Fuller, 2001): excessive inventory investments poor customer service lost revenues the productivity capital in operations becomes substandard as revenues are lost increasing in transportation costs and sub-optimal transportation pattern demand variability may cause missed production schedule The Bullwhip Effect is a result of behavior of supply chain members and is created by themselves as a result of their rational decision making in situation of short or not full information about real end-customer demand. The Bullwhip Effect is an internal effect. Companies can ignore the Bullwhip effect and suffer from it extra losses or can try to reduce it. 2. The reasons for existence of the Bullwhip effect The good illustration of the Bullwhip effect is the beer game. In this experiment (it first took place in 1980s) participants play four different roles: customers, managers, wholesales and supplies of one of the popular beer brand. It is not allowed to communicate with each other, so participants make decisions about ordering only based on orders from the next downstream player. The results of this experiment are variability and volatility of upstream levels that always exceed variability and volatility of downstream levels. The interpretation of this result can be different. On one hand it can be effect of irrational decision making on each level (Lee et al., 1997a). But on the other hand, if the Bullwhip effect is a summary of rational decision making, we can indentify different main causes, and then the Bullwhip effect appears because of problems in the supply chain structure. These are the main causes of the Bullwhip Effect: 1. Demand forecasting updating (Lee et al., 1997a). Every company on each level of supply chain makes forecasting for production, capacity, inventory, material requirements and demand levels. Demand forecasting is usually based on the order history from the companys immediate customers, i.e. on what the company actually observes (Lee et al., 1997a). By using simply forecasting methods, for example exponential smoothing (forecasting of future demand based on new daily demand and it updating when new data is received) the order that is sent to the suppliers is a reflection of safety stock plus amount that is needed to satisfy future demand. The result is that the variability of amount of orders will increase during going on supply chain from the end-customer to the end supplier. 2. Order batching (in two forms periodic ordering and push ordering) (Lee et al., 1997a). There often appears a situation when companies order once a week, once in two weeks, once a month, instead of ordering every day or every few days. This situation appear because sometimes suppliers cannot satisfy frequent ordering or transportation costs are too high (there is a big difference between full load and less than truckload rate, suppliers may even provide customers with discounts for full-truck loads) or time for processing orders is too long. Companies want to make advantages on economies of scale but amount of ordering varies during the time (people order more on the end of the week, end of the months, holidays etc.) The Bullwhip effect decreases when order cycles decrease. 3. Price fluctuations (Lee et al., 1997a). The bullwhip effect also appears when quantity of goods that customers buy doesnt reflect their current needs. This is a result of customers buying in advance more than they need and stock some quantity because of attractive prices (it can be periodic discounts or promotions events when product prices are low). When level of prices becomes normal, customers stop buying products until they have it in stock. In this case buying structure doesnt reflect the consuming structure, as a result the fluctuation of buying amount is more tremendous than the variation of consuming amount (Lee et al., 1997a). Such discounts and promotions influence negatively the supply chain. It seems like manufactures and distributors create these price fluctuations themselves, and it means that they set up a bullwhip effect themselves. 4. Rationing and shortage gaming (Lee et al., 1997a). There are situations when demand is bigger than supply. In this case customer needs can be satisfied only partly. So customers order bigger amounts than they actually need, and when the situation becomes stable (demand is equal to supply) orders suddenly get cancelled. This means that customers give wrong information about their real demands to the suppliers, and this effect is referred to as gaming (Lee et al., 1997a). This is a common situation for a market. 5. Material and information delays (Paik et al., 2007). According to Towill and his co-authors, material and information delays might be a major contributing factor to the Bullwhip effect (Paik et al., 2007). 6. Supply variability (Paik et al., 2007). According to Taylor, supply variability (machine reliability problems and quality problems) is one of the possible causes of the Bullwhip effect. Output of the unreliable machines fluctuates and it pushes the variability of demands of the upstream members. Variability in production level is thus the initial trigger of demand variability, which in turn triggers the Bullwhip effect (Paik et al., 2007). 7. Number of echelons (Paik et al., 2007). According to Towill and his co-authors and to Ackere, reducing number of one or more intermediates lead to significant reducing of the Bullwhip effect (Paik et al., 2007). 3. The ways to reduce the Bullwhip effect In the previous chapter we described the reasons for existence of the Bullwhip effect. Understanding of these reasons gives a very good base to understanding of how to counteract the negative consequences of the Bullwhip effect. Many companies developed their own successful mechanisms of fighting the outcomes of this effect, and Hau L. Lee, V. Padmanabhan, and Seungjin Whang suggest to divide these various initiatives into three categories: Information sharing, Channel alignment, and Operational efficiency (see Table 1). Table 1 (Lee et al., 1997a) Causes of Bullwhip effect Information sharing Channel alignment Operational efficiency Demand forecast update understanding system dynamics use POS data electronic data interchange Internet computer-assisted ordering (CAO) vendor-managed inventory discount for information sharing consumer direct lead-time reduction echelon-based inventory control Order batching EDI Internet-ordering discount for truck-load assortment delivery appointments consolidation logistics outsourcing reduction in fixed cost of ordering by EDI or electronic commerce CAO Price fluctuations Continuous replenishment program (CRP) Everyday low cost (EDLC) Everyday low price (EDLP) Activity-based costing (ABC) The above mentioned categories imply the following: Information sharing: the information about actual customers demand is transmitted from the downstream site to the upstream; Channel alignment is about coordination of different business activities (as pricing, transportation, planning etc.) between the upstream and the downstream sites in the supply chain, and Operational efficiency implies the set of activities that help to improve performance, such as to reduce the lead-time. Lee et al. introduced a set of efficient countermeasures that were designed to minimize the negative effects of the Bullwhip effect (Lee et al., 1997a, b): Avoid multiple demand forecast updates Since the main reason of existence of the Bullwhip effect is the fact, that every member of the supply chain makes its own demand forecasting based on the data provided to it by its immediate downstream member, the one evident way to avoid this repetitive processing of demand data in a supply chain is to make the real consumption data (that is known at a downstream site) available at all of the upstream sites. This would allow all of the enterprises in a supply chain (from downstream to upstream) to make and update their forecasts based on the same raw data. Data sharing can be implemented, for instance, by the use of the electronic data interchange (EDI) systems. But the practice shows that in some cases even though all of the organizations in a supply chain use the same demand data to make their forecasts, the differences in forecasting methods and/or buying practices may still lead to fluctuations in the orders placed with the upstream sites. Break order batches The main idea here is to avoid another reason of appearance of the Bullwhip effect order batching by developing the strategies that lead to smaller batches and thus more frequent supply. One of the reasons of large order batches and low order frequencies is the high cost of processing the orders, which can be avoided, for example, by the use of electronic document circulation instead of paper-based. The other reason of large order batches is the transportation costs: the differences in the costs of full truckloads and less-than-truckloads are very high, and this makes companies to wait for the full truckloads and thus stretch the replenishment times, which also creates order batching. This problem can also be avoided by inducing by the manufacturers their distributors to order assortments of different products at a time (a truckload from the same producer may contain different products instead of full load of the same product) and thus significantly increase the order frequency. This can be stimulated by offering discounts by manufacturers to their distributors if they order mixed loads. The other effective way to solve the problem of order batching is the use of third-party logistics companies: these companies allow economies of scale by combining loads from different suppliers situated near each other and delivering these loads to different companies, what is especially very u seful for small companies, for which full truckload replenishment times are very long. Stabilize prices A very straightforward way of eliminating the Bullwhip effect caused by forward buying is for the manufacturers to reduce the levels and frequencies of wholesale discounts. One of the most effective ways of doing it is implementing the everyday low price (EDLP) pricing strategy. The practice shows that this strategy is effective both for the suppliers and for the customers since it helps to decrease costs of inventory, storage, transportation etc. for every participant. Though with use of the conventional accounting systems the benefits of the EDLP strategy compared to wholesale price discounting strategy are not evident for the buyer, ABC systems in most cases explicitly show the advantages of EDLP strategy. Eliminate gaming in shortage The aim of this measure is to deprive buyers of the incentives to exaggerate their orders in hope of the partial satisfaction of these orders by the suppliers. One of the simple ways to get rid of this reason of Bullwhip effect appearance is as following: in case of shortage the supplier can allocate products to the customers not based on their orders, but in proportion to past sales records. Also the buyers desire for gaming may be lessened if the supplier shares its capacity and inventory information with them. The other way of fighting with buyers gaming desire is to use strict supply contracts that restrict buyers flexibility in ordering unlimited quantities of goods and free cancelling of orders. However, we have to admit that the above mentioned measures of reduction of the Bullwhip effect are not exhaustive and cannot fully eliminate the existence of this effect. A number of scientific papers mathematically prove that the Bullwhip effect still exists even when demand information is shared by all stages of the supply chain and all stages use the same forecasting technique and inventory policy (Chen et al., 2000), and even if almost all of the above described causes (like batching, price fluctuations etc.) are removed (Croson Donohue, 2003). This gives us the understanding that the Bullwhip effect problem still needs to be closely scrutinized and other ways of reducing this effect are still need to be developed. Conclusion In our concise but, we hope, substantial overview we tried to reflect different approaches to the understanding of the phenomenon called The Bullwhip effect and the negative effects that it brings to the members of a supply chain, and to describe the most sound, to our opinion, ways of reducing this effect, that were introduced by the researchers during the past two decades. We also found that though during the last years to the investigation of this matter a lot of scientists devoted a lot of their efforts, the problem of getting rid of the Bullwhip effect in a supply chain has not yet been solved completely: a number of scientific papers mathematically prove that the Bullwhip effect still exists even when almost all of the discovered (so far) causes of its appearance (like batching, price fluctuations etc.) are removed. This means that the Bullwhip effect problem still needs to be closely scrutinized and other ways of reducing this effect are still need to be developed.

Use of Birds in Keats Ode to a Nightingale and Shelleys To a Sky-Lark

Use of Birds in Keats' Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley's To a Sky-Lark Of particular interest is the use of birds by two romantic poets. John Keats once listened to a bird song and gifted us with his Ode to a Nightingale. The sky-lark inspires Percy Shelley and through his vision of the bird we are privy to its beauty. Birds have always held a significance in human lives. While some animals were companions, others for labor or a source a food, our flying companions held an other-worldly place. They achieved heights unattainable to humans -- and sung while they did that. These two poets use a bird as their muse and also symbolically for the human experience. Keats' ode begins with his feeling drowsy, lethargic and sad, as if he were under the influence of a drug. In the background of his mind he hears the nightingale "In some melodious plot" (1.8) singing joyfully. The first stanza seems to be the beginning of an awakening. The poet is lost in his own world, in a drugged state, where the only sound allowed to enter is the bird's song. Alone in a saddened state a person can feel isolated and withdraw from others. In the first part of this stanza Keats conveys this solitary depression, where the mind is so overwhelmed with preoccupation that the outside world cannot intrude. This is similar to someone being told devastating news and that person walks about in a daze, even to the point of walking into traffic without realizing it. The second part reveals a touch of redemption. Something from outside the mind is allowed to enter the consciousness. A healing of the mind can happen and the song of a bird is the catalyst. This melancholy is carried over into the second stanza and the poet speaks of wanting to "leave the worl... ...eats lacks resolution; his poem is slightly disturbing. While the reader can discern seeds of happiness in Keats' poem, it never fully develops. Both poets though convey a sense of being one with the bird. In effect the birds become anthropomorphic. It is interesting to see how these poets use their imagination to seemlessly blend human life with the respective birds. Works Cited Heyen, William. "In Consideration of Percy Shelley." Southern Humanities Review Spring. 1983: 131-42. Jarrell, Randall. "The Profession of Poetry." Partisan Review Fall. 1950: 724-31. Knight, G. Wilson. Percy Shelley and the Poetry of Vision. New York: Barnes and Noble Inc., 1960. Maurer, Robert E. "Notes on John Keats." John Keats: A Collection of Critical Essays. 1972: 79-99. Williams, Meg Harris. Inspiration in Milton and Keats. Totowa: Barnes and Noble Books, 1982.

From Leninism to Stalinism: A Logical Progression

The question of whether or not Stalinism was a logical continuation of Leninism is a difficult one. Stalinism did take significantly more drastic measures than Leninism did. There were differences in policy. But in spite of these, Stalinism still found its basis in Leninism. Even Trotsky, a friend of Lenin and a staunch opponent of Stalin, grudgingly admits that â€Å"Stalinism did issue from Bolshevism† (Trotsky). Stalin's policy of socialism in one country, his use of terror to eliminate opposition, and his suppression of democracy and the soviets were all characteristics of Lenin well before they were characteristic of Stalin. Although some of Stalin's policies were different from those of Lenin, what difference Stalinism did show from Leninism were either policies which Lenin had called for but never put into action, or logical continuations of Lenin's original principles, but modified to suit the demands of the time. One of Stalin's main focuses was on the concept of â€Å"socialism in one country† – that is, the focus on the betterment exclusively of his own country rather than on the international communist revolution. â€Å"Socialism in one country† began with Lenin. In 1918 Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Livtosk, which pulled Russia out of WW1 and surrendered much of the Ukraine to Austria-Hungarian forces (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). At this time, there was a revolutionary movement in the Ukraine composed of peasants and workers known as the Makhnovist movement. This group needed only the support of Lenin and Russia to launch their own socialist revolution. However, they were not given this support (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). Clearly, Lenin's focus was on the well-being of Russia rather than the International Communist Movement. He was focused on Socialism in One Country. Lenin's actions, compromising his political ideals for the sake of peace, would later be echoed by Stalin when Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler on August 23, 1939. In addition to a focus on socialism only within his own country, Stalin also focused on a concentration of governmental control of industry and agriculture. This policy, originated by Lenin under the moniker of state capitalism, was a clearly established goal of Leninism well before Stalin implemented it. Lenin said that â€Å"Socialism isnothing but state capitalist monopoly made to benefit the whole people† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). It is clear that his idea of socialism was one of governmental economic control. Moreover, Lenin fully intended for this plan to be implemented. He said that â€Å"If we introduced state capitalism in approximately 6 months' time we would achieve a great success† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). As the government gained more and more control over the economy, Lenin felt it necessary to defend his actions. He published an article in April of 1918 in which he stated that â€Å"Unquestioning submission to a single will is absolutely necessary for the success of the labor process†¦ the revolution demands, in the interests of socialism, that the masses unquestioningly obey the single will of the leaders of the labor process† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). In addition to demonstrating the Leninist ideal of state capitalism, it also shows that Lenin viewed absolute governmental authority as necessary, a policy that would be further instituted during the totalitarian rule of Stalin. One aspect of Lenin's state capitalism was the forced collectivization of agriculture. In article six of his â€Å"April Theses,† Lenin called for â€Å"Nationalization of all lands in the country, and management of such lands by local Soviets of Agricultural Laborers' and Peasants' Deputies† (Russian History 1905-30†³). In 1929, when Stalin forced collectivization onto the agricultural workers, he was simply putting Lenin's concepts into action. Lenin had had the original idea, and had felt it was a necessary action, but he had been unable to put his plan fully into effect. Stalin was able to take a previously incompletely implemented Leninist policy and put it into action. In their attempts to bring the workers under governmental control, Leninists were willing to take drastic action. In May of 1918, a new decree stated that only one third of industrial management personnel could be elected, the rest being appointed to their positions. In April of 1920, Trotsky stated that â€Å"Deserters from labor ought to be formed into punitive battalions or put into concentration camps† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). Arguments have been raised which state that Lenin's New Economic Policy is a demonstration of the fact that Leninism's goal was not one of total governmental control. However, the New Economic Policy was only instituted by Lenin when it became absolutely necessary for the survival of Russia, and even then it was only intended to be a temporary measure before returning to state capitalism. Despite the temporary nature of the New Economic Policy, it was still viewed by many leading members of the Communist party as being too drastic a departure from Leninist doctrine. When Stalin abandoned the New Economic Policy, he was not abandoning a part of Leninism. Rather, he was banning a policy that even Lenin himself had not intended to be permanent, and that many people viewed as being a policy contrary to the aims of Leninism (Wood, p. 23-26). Stalin was also characterized by his strong suppression of opposition, which is once again a Leninist trait. A decree of the Sovnarkom on December 20, 1917 called for the creation of a commission â€Å"to persecute and break up all acts of counter-revolution and sabotage all over Russia, no matter what their origin† (â€Å"Russian History 1905-30†). The decree further read that â€Å"measures [to be taken against these counter-revolutionaries are] confiscation, confinement, deprivation of [food] cards, publication of the names of the enemies of the people, etc† (â€Å"Russian History 1905-30†). While these actions were admittedly not as drastic as Stalin's, they do represent a strong, forceful suppression of opposition. In addition, Stalin was in power after these measures had already proven futile. Given the ineffectiveness of these methods, a logical continuation of these policies would have been to increase the severity of the suppression. In addition, other actions taken by Leninism were far more drastic. In a Cheka raid in Moscow in April 1918, 26 Anarchist centers were raided, killing or injuring 40 Anarchists and imprisoning over 500 more (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). Another feature common to both Stalin and Lenin was their attempts to eliminate any democratic or representative forms of government. This too was a continuation of a long-standing Leninist policy well before Stalin was in power. Starting in 1918, in elections for factory committees, an approved list of candidates was created beforehand, and voting was done by a show of hands while a member of the Communist cell read the names and armed Communist guards watched on. Voicing opposition to the proposed candidates would result in wage cuts (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). Lenin's suppressions were not limited to non-communists. As Stalin would later do, Lenin also worked to eliminate any possible sources of dissention within the Communist party. In 1918 there was a faction within the party that was critical of the new policy of Taylorism, a system used to measure the outputs of the workers in the country. This faction was centered around the journal Kommunist. At a Leningrad party conference, the majority supported Lenin's demand â€Å"that the adherents of Kommunist cease their separate organizational existence† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). Three years later, the 1921 party congress issued a ban on all factions within the Communist party. Speaking regarding one of these factions, the Workers Opposition, Trotsky said they had â€Å"placed the workers right to elect representatives above the party. As if the party were not entitled to assert its dictatorship even if that dictatorship temporarily clashed with the passing moods of the workers democracy† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). We can see the dark motivations behind Leninism's banning of factions: to keep the democracy from interfering with the dictatorship. Well before Stalin was using his power to eliminate any who might oppose him, Lenin was carefully and thoroughly removing the opponents to his power. In the trade union congress of April 1920, Lenin stated that in 1918 he had â€Å"pointed out the necessity of recognizing the dictatorial authority of single individuals for the purpose of carrying out the soviet idea† (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). This concept of a single absolute ruler that Lenin felt was so necessary was to become one of the points for which Stalin was later criticized. In setting himself up as an absolute dictator, Stalin was merely following what Lenin had said was necessary. Another aspect of Stalin's suppression of opposition was his violent suppression of workers revolts and the soviets. Stalinism crushed revolts in East Berlin in 1953, in Hungary in 1956, and in Czechoslovakia in 1968, as well as many other, smaller revolts (â€Å"How Lenin Led to Stalin†). This policy would seem to contradict the Leninist ideal, in which the government was built for the workers, and a revolt of the workers would have been something that occurred only as a step towards a communist society. However, we can find this policy originating from Leninism. The Leninist government itself often showed strong opposition to attempts made by the workers to increase their power. The first All-Russian Congress of Soviets, held in June of 1917, stated that giving full power to the soviets would have â€Å"greatly weakened and threatened the revolution† (â€Å"Russian History 1905-30†). In 1921, at the Kronstadt naval base, workers attempted to elect a soviet. They also issued a declaration which called for the reestablishment of the democratic soviets, and an end to censorship of speech and press. These actions were supported by the workers, the sailors, and many members of the Bolshevik party. However, official Leninist forces stormed the base, killing many of the rebels who were unable to escape. Leninism had demonstrated that it was opposed to a representative government designed with the wants of the workers in mind. All of the defining policies of Stalinism were either policies that had originally being instituted by Leninism, policies called for by Leninism but not put into action until Stalinism, or else Leninist policies modified to fit the needs of the situation. Stalinism was a logical continuation of Leninism.

buy custom Vulnerability of Information Infrastructure and Trends of Cyber Terrorism essay

buy custom Vulnerability of Information Infrastructure and Trends of Cyber Terrorism essay The term terrorism describes a situation, where an individual or a group of individuals employ violence or threaten the use of violence to bring about a certain desired result. As the world evolves and develops, particularly in the field of technology, new and modified modes of cyber crime have been witnessed. Cyber terrorism is among the modifications that have been made, in both cyber crime and terrorism (Wilson, 2008a). Cybercrime is gradually becoming better at organization and establishment. Online skills that utilize high levels of technology are available for use by individuals, including those, who would want to rent such skills for malicious intent. Criminals, who use the cyber space, as their environment, are switching to using automated tools subsequently frustrating efforts to successfully track and measure cyber attack trends (Adams, 2001). The methodologies, that people have used over the years to track web vulnerabilities and cyber attacks, have been overwhelmed by the changing trends that are witnessed in cyber attacks. Cybercriminals are increasingly forming alliances and renting their services to drug traffickers and other criminals, who have taken advantage of the vast number of opportunities that have brought about, by an increase in the use of the internet. The architectures of some of the botnets that are used in cyber crime have become more sophisticated, and future prospects include a transformation that will make them resistant to countermeasures taken in cyber security (Army, 2005). The fact remains that more sensitive information is being stored and transferred in the web medium highlighting the level of severity, if information infrastructure is to be as vulnerable. In addition, the technology of computer networking has led to the boundaries that exist between cybercrime, cyber ware fare and cyber terror ism, being blurred. This owes to the availability of cyber attack services for hire. Background The fear of vulnerability of information infrastructure has long been part of peoples lives, since the conception of the internet. The internet was centralized in 1970, during its conception; this means that there was a single control point for the information that was available over the internet. However, it was later decentralized for fear of its capability of becoming a weapon during the cold war. Come the late 1980s, the internet was open to both public and private users. This opening up meant that anyone could access the internet and gain information from it, as long as they had an internet connection (Arquilla Ronfeldt, 2001). There are several features that make the internet susceptible for use in cyber terrorism. These features include factors, such as, the fact that the internet has easy access. In addition, there is often little regulation or none at all in the content, in terms of government control or censorship. The internet, also, has a potential and opportunity of ha ving a huge audience that is diverse, in that there are people from all over the world. People have more ease of use, because of the anonymity that is offered by the internet. Information that is in the internet flows faster than in other mediums giving people the feedback that they need to make further plans (Austin Darby, 2003). Other than that, the cost of transferring information and maintaining the web is relatively lower, as well, as the multimedia environment providing a context for making use of audio, video and texting forms of communication (Rollins, 2007). Also, the internet has given people the capability of shaping the slant of the coverage of the traditional media, since most use the internet, as a major source of information. As a result, people find it easier to communicate their views to traditional media through the internet. These features that are present in the internet make it easier for people to carry out criminal activity, including cyber activity. The distinctions that exist between terrorism, war and crime, often blur, when they are considered in a computer network attack context. This blur in boundaries makes measuring cyber attack trends a challenge that is complex (Wilson, 2008b). One of the things that can help in developing an appropriate measure for trends is having exact knowledge of what the end result is defined as. Cyber terrorism is described in two frameworks: one of them, being effect-based, and the other, being intent-based. Within the context of effects, cyber terrorism is said to exist, when the attack that has been launched on the computer results in effects that are disruptive, such that they generate fear that is similar or comparable to what is often witnessed with traditional terrorism (Wilson, 2008a). The intent-based context describes cyber terrorism, as an act of cyber attack that is perpetrated, is done so, with the intent of coercing some form of political view or leading to a severe economic injury to a nation or nations. It is important to note, that information is the constant in cyber terrorism and the internet is the major medium through which people deliver cyber terrorism. For an attack that has been staged to be successful, it is required that the network being used, remains intact, unless the effectiveness of the attack results from the shutting down of the network. When a cyber attack is committed, it is usually so that one side meets certain objectives. Some of the objectives of cyber attack include inducing or enhancing the loss of integrity in that information that is contained in a network is modified improperly. In addition, loss of availability is induced, where information systems that are critical to missions are made unavailable to the authorized users of the network (Bagchi Udo, 2003). Also, the loss of confidentiality is engendered, such that information, that is critical, is disclosed to users, who are unauthorized. Other than that, some of the information systems that are affected result in the creation of actual and real physical destruction, especially through commands created to result in deliberate malfunction. Currently, there is no evidence that is significant enough to determine whether terrorists have undertaken a considerable cyber attack. A cyber attack involves making use of some kind of malicious code, as a weapon to cause a particular infection on the targeted computer system, or to exploit a weakness that exists within the systems configuration or in the software (Bagchi Udo, 2003). In addition, an individual may use information that has been stolen to gain access to a certain network, or attain clearance to make changes to the information that is contained in the networks remotely. Cyber attacks need for the network to have a preexisting flaw that makes it susceptible to the attack, such as lack of antivirus software, a software error or a faulty system configuration that can then be exploited (Army, 2005). However, technology is evolving and there may come a time, when this distinguishing requirement may fade in importance. Purpose of the Study There is no consensus, as to what entails cyber terrorism or what its definition is. Terrorism, like other organizations, is taking advantage of the opportunities and enhancements that have been brought about by availability of the internet. The purpose of this proposal, therefore, is to provide an academic framework, stemming from a discourse of issues that are relevant to cyberterrosrism, which will help identify vulnerability of information infrastructure and trends of cyber terrorism with the aim of knowing how to best approach measuring of cyber attacks. This information will be helpful to people with various interests in cyber security, especially those, who have been charged with ensuring that the information in the internet remains protected. Importance of the Study The information that will be attained from this study, will give experts in the area of cyber security a better idea of what to expect from cyber terrorism, thus, arming them with information that will be useful in developing counter measures and preventive mechanisms to protect the internet from cyber terrorism. Security companies dealing in internet security and software security will be in a better position to develop encryptions that are most effective in protecting information in cyberspace. In addition, understanding and acquiring knowledge of the most appropriate and effective way of measuring cyber attack trends will be a major stride in detecting and tracking cybercrime that may be indicative of cyber terrorism. Statement of the Problem The number of random cyber attacks in cyber space has been gradually increasing, and more so, over the last decade and a half (Bagchi Udo, 2003). However, the data that has been collected in attempts to measure the trends in the use of cyber-attacks still cannot be utilized to accurately determine, if the attacker was a terrorist group, or if they were initiated or sponsored by a terrorist group. The critical nature of this situation is highlighted by the fact that company industrys that are critical to the infrastructure of the society are increasingly becoming targets of cyber terrorism. Experts have reached a consensus, as to the fact, that coordinated cyber-attacks, could be used to amplify the effect of physical attacks, but, disagree, as to the damaging effects that such attacks will have on the information infrastructure of certain systems of critical sectors. This underlines the fact that information infrastructure should be understood with particular emphasis on cyber terr orism trends, and how they can be measured. Determinant factors, such as, the level of dependence that a particular society has on technology, will also lead to the effects of cyber attacks being different in different systems. How then can one come up with an effective way of measuring the trends of cyber attacks, in the face of the diverse information that is available, in terms of cyber terrorism? Conceptual Model It has been reported that terrorist organizations have been conducting some forms of information warfare. Additionally, there have been increased reports of terrorists, using the internet to carry out their operations, such as, those that involve giving issuing instructions or conducting defacement of an individual or a group of them, over the internet (Bagchi Udo, 2003). Files are encrypted then sent through e-mail or, steganography can be employed in the sending of malicious e-mail. Even though some of the encryptions that have been used are relatively weak, it still shows that cyber terrorism is becoming a more appealing avenue for terrorist groups and it is only a matter of time, before they acquire an effective expertise or rent it from other people in the internet. Cyber terrorism has been increasingly taking the shape of steganography. This refers to a practice, where information that is meant to be secret or unknown to some indiiduals is hidden or contained within other data that is not meant to be hidden. This information is rarely detected, unless someone is looking for it. The information that is meant to be encrypted and hidden is encoded in secret and lower-order bit positions that are within an image file, video file or a sound file. It should, however, be noted that an email that has been encrypted appears in a form that is different from a normal e-mail when it is viewed through an analyzer. Thus, if someone is sniffing, they may identify the encrypted message (Austin Darby, 2003). Terrorism is also about imposing and spreading ideologies that other people may not necessarily agree with and the internet is the largest and most accessible source and storage location of information in the world. As a result, it is the most effective w ay that terrorists can use to exploit information infrastructures available and communicate their ideologies and views in an effort to win a war of ideas. The fact that technology makes the dissemination of information faster and simpler has made it appealing and made information on the internet unsafe. Research Questions The study that is proposed, will aim to answer the following research questions: What is the relationship between vulnerability of information infrastructure and the trends of cyber terrorism? Does perceived vulnerability of information infrastructure and perceived usefulness of the internet have any effect on the trends of cyber terrorism? To what does the relatively higher level of cyber terrorism and cyber attack being witnessed today owe its nature to? What is the relationship between vulnerability of information infrastructure in countries with critical industries and cyber terrorism trends? What is the relevance of information infrastructure vulnerability and cyber terrorism trends to the development of ways to best measure cyber attacks? Method of Inquiry The methodology that will be employed in the study will be a non-experimental approach. The nature of the non-experimental approach will be ex post facto and it will involve looking at information from events that have already occurred. The major methods of gathering data will be through reviewing various relevant literatures, with specific emphasis on reports from the Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports to congress, over the last fifteen years. In addition, security reports from certain companies will be viewed to see the types of cyber terrorism that they have dealt with and how they handled the situation from both a reactive and proactive point of view. Assumptions The assumptions of this study are that the workers in the critical industries will be knowledgeable on the issue of cyber terrorism, and will have been affected by some form of cyber attack. Another assumption is that the damages that may have been caused by the cyber attack will have a relationship to the vulnerability of the information infrastructure within the industry; a vulnerability that those, within the industry are aware of. In addition, it will also be assumed that there is a relationship between cyber terrorism trends and the methods of measuring trends in cyber attacks. Limitations One of the limitations is that the companies that are involved in critical industries that have been chosen for the research may refuse to give up the reports that pertain to their security threats or give little information. On addition, some of the companies that we hope to use as a source of information may be faced with some legal action as a consequence of giving information to parties like us. Delimitations The limitations of the study will be that the geographical location will be restricted to the United States, owing to its relatively vast development and use of the internet. The reports and literature that will be reviewed, will give one side of the story, meaning that the results obtained and subsequently the methods of measuring cyber attacks will be based in the context of American users of the internet. Another limitation is that the reports from individual companies will not be representative in terms of presenting the overall picture of all companies that deal with cyber terrorism. Paper Organization This proposal will have three chapters, chapter one will contain information that will introduce the study and offer a contextual background, before stating the purpose and importance of carrying out the study. Following this, there will be a problem statement and a description of the conceptual model, the assumptions, limitations and delimitations of the project. Chapter two includes a detailed discussion of the relevant literature addressing the problem. Each section discusses the evidence available that provides insight into the problem and sub-problems. Chapter three is a detailed description of the research methodology, employed in the study. It includes a discussion of the method of inquiry, population and sample, instrument, used to gather the data, and the hypotheses and associated analysis techniques, to be employed in the data analysis. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Purpose of the Chapter Reviewing literature about the vulnerability of information and trends of cyber terrorism in addition to reviewing available literature on how to best measure trends in cyber attacks is important, because cyber terrorism trends is a topic that requires a historical perspective, as well, as the perspective of other writers. In addition, a trend can only be recognized, if there is a body of evidence and information that is related to the research topic. Reviewing literature is, also, important, as it will help answer part of some of the research questions that have been posed majorly the questions that need for the nature of relationships, to be established. Chapter Organization The chapter will begin by looking at literature that is available on different trends of cyber terrorism and analyzing them. A case study will be included to further elaborate the trends in cyber terrorism. In addition, the connection between terrorist groups and hackers will be explored and botnets to be expounded on. Persistent vulnerabilities will be mentioned followed by a summary, to conclude the chapter. Trends Cyber attacks are coming into the internet world rapidly, and, in most cases, without warning. This trend is quite disconcerting for organizations that have been affected and those that may be affected (Arquilla Ronfeldt, 2001). The situation is made worse by the lack of timely and transparent disclosure that most organizations are affected. Cyber attacks were often considered a nuisance, but the reality of cyber terrorism has become a problem for organizations and to general public with critical industries, standing to experience the most damaging effects (Cashell, Jackson, Jickling Webel, 2004). The trends of cyberterrorism have been gradually moving towards causing serious financial consequences for government and business institutions. According to a study carried out by Ponemon (2010), over $3.8 million is lost to cyber crime every year. Out of the 45 organizations that were studies, the average was having 50 successful attacks in a week. Wilson (2008a), reports that attacks, that have been directed to at computer systems have three ends that result from their means. One is that, the equipment that steers a computer system could be disrupted faulting the reliability of the hardware available (Cronin, 2002a). In addition, the processing logic that is, usually, followed in a system can be altered and, finally, the data that is contained within a computer system can be stolen or corrupted. Another trend that is becoming common in cyber terrorism is collaboration in that the perpetrators of cyber terrorism are collaborating to reduce the chances, of either being pinpointed and to make tracking of the origin of a message, or malicious code harder (Austin Darby, 2003). A case in point of cyber terrorism that ended in dire results, was in Estonia when, in the spring of 2007, the government system experienced a cyber attack that has often been labeled, as cyber terror. On April 27th of the same year, certain officials in Estonia moved a memorial that was meant to celebrate unknown Russians, who had died in combat during the naziNazi regime (Wilson, 2008a). Ethnic Russians rioted at this and a series of distributed denial of service attacks were, also, launched. Servers and computers were flooded, while legitimate users were blocked from accessing websites. This crippled Estonia owing to the fact that the country relied heavily on information technology, and there were limited on the part of managing resources. The problem that persisted in the aftermath of the attack was identifying the perpetrators. The system was already vulnerable, because of the inadequate management and, thus, the denial of service attacks were more effective (Wilson, 2008a). Cyber crime is often conducted through an internet connection. Before, hacking as a cybercrime was done for the main purpose of gaining a reputation among peers, but this trend is changing to one that involves getting profits and monetary gain from these hackings (Cronin, 2002a). As a result of this situation, there are more people with the ability to carry out cyber terrorism for hire. The motives that drive cybercriminals are often different from that of their customers, though, the result is similar (Army, 2005). New forms of technologies are gradually and more often out spacing policy for those, involved in law enforcement. In addition, agencies involved with cyber security and conflicting policies in different countries that govern cyberspace policies, also hinder efforts that are made towards identifying and developing ways to measure cyber attacks (Bagchi Udo, 2003). Thus, another trend of cyber terrorism is that some of those, who have initiated it, have chosen to work in c ountries, where the laws and policies that govern cybercrime do not restrict them from carrying out their activities. In addition that the internet is not restricted by geographical boundaries, contributes to the trend of taking cyber terrorism to countries that do not yet have penalties for cybercrime (Cronin, 2002b). Other than that, some of the high end cybercrime organizations and groups that are available for hire are using techniques that are similar to those of business development, to keep their features up to date with the latest and, most often, the best anti security features (Friman, 2001). The designs of cyber attacks have channged too, to include those that secretly and gradually steal information without leaving any traces behind. Most of the critical industries around the world have a security system that would notice, if information is taken and electronic fingerprints are left behind (British North American committee, n.d.) As a result of this, most cyber terrorists are choosing and modifying their attacks to be undetected. Widespread and fast dissemination of scripts that are assistive in new exploits, have made it possible for programmers, who are unsophisticated to take advantage and use complex techniques that they would normally be incapable of developing (Garg, Curtis Halper, 2003). DDoS (distributed denial of service) attacks have been evolving over the years and they are especially popular in high profile attacks that have gained significant publicity (Bolt Brenner, 2004). Perpetrators of DDoS attacks are taking advantage of the lax security that is often in home computers to plant programs that are malicious that the individual may then take to work with them. Unauthorized intrusions are becoming a great nuisance for governments and businesses. The loss or sharing of sensitive or proprietary information can have very devastating effects (Knapp Boulton, 2006). In the beginning, intrusions were limited to curious and experimental hackers. However, organized crime and terrorist organizations have recognized and acknowledged the benefits of having access to this information (Lawson, 2002). Connection Between Terrorist Groups and Hackers It is difficult to tell the number or nature of terrorist organizations that are directly linked to cybercrime. However, there are connections that exist between criminals and terrorist organizations in that the criminals allow terror networks to expand to other areas of the world through leveraging them transit routes, computer resources and money laundering activities that the criminals operate or are connected to (Lewis, 2002). Major narcotics market regions, like North America, have in their possession optimal technological infrastructure that can open up newer markets and serve transnational needs of terrorist groups (Pladna, 2008). The connection between hackers and terrorism groups is a difficult one to determine, identify and evaluate. Most of the high end hacker groups and very exclusive and only for very high skilled individuals, who are ready to maintain the confidentiality of the group since it enhances their functioning (Rollins, 2005). As a result, they rarely seek publicity or attention making it harder to identify them. It is most likely that terrorist groups will seek the assistance of hackers, who are exclusive and meticulous about confidentiality and secrecy (Rodriguez, 2006). In addition, hackers being available for sale and rent, vulnerabilities that are in different computer systems are, also, available for sale over the internet from special black markets that have been developed by hackers and are supplied and updated on a regular basis (Rollins, 2007). The characteristic mode of operation of hackers, where they take time to meticulously plan for an attack, has also been witnessed in terrorist attacks, especially bombings that have been planned and launched by groups such as Al Qaeda. Botnets Botnets are increasingly gaining popularity in cybercrime becoming a major tool in the field. This is partly because the botnets, can be customized or configured for particular attacks on certain targets, in that they can be utilized in the effective disruption of computer systems that have been targeted, and this happens in different ways (Wilson, 2008a). This means that the attack can be directed to the most vulnerable areas of information infrastructure of different systems. In addition, it is also preferred, because it can be initiated by a malicious user, who does not have adequate skills to go through another avenue, like hacking a complex system (Devost, 2001). The makeup of a botnet or a bot network consists of a number of computers that are infected that have been infected by malicious code, and these codes can be controlled remotely over the internet and directed to certain other networks. The controls that are given remotely are transmitted through commands that have been issued over the internet (Wilson, 2003). Hundreds of the computers that are part of the botnet can work together to distribute a malicious code, harvest information, and disrupt or block internet traffic for the targeted systems. They are among the most versatile trends of cyber terrorism within the underground economy. According to Wilson (2008a), in the 2008 CRS report to the congress, designers of botnets make money by marketing their skills and technical services to those interested. As a result, even terrorist cells that may not have someone with the skills they need can rent her services at a fee. Cyber terrorism is possible following other forms of transactions over the internet, like trading services for a fee. The original mode of sending botnet codes was through sending them in e-mails, but users have grown more weary and cautious, and the designs have, also, changed. Clicking on a spam message or an advertisement banner can secretly install a botnet code on your PC (Erbschloe, 2001). Un-patched vulnerabilities that may be in a browser may permit the installation of a botnet code into a website or a PC (Vatis- M, 2001). There are newer ways being developed to distribute bot software that will make it harder for law enforcement, to identify and track botnet designers. Persistent information infrastructure vulnerabilities Routers are charged with the function of forwarding information to desired destinations. The vulnerability of routers has been persistent, allowing attackers to disrupt certain selected portions of the internet and target particular power stations (Rollins, 2007). Other than that, router vulnerability is a major vulnerability that can allow an attacker to steal an individuals identity (DeMarrais, 2003). This identity could be used to authorize actions that will benefit terrorism. Industries that are critical provide economic targets that are ample and the damages that follow could cause major and crippling effects (Giacomell, 2004). Some of the critical industries that are often attacked deal with power, finance, manufacturing and government (Adams, 2001). Summary There have been various trends witnessed in cyber terrorism, and they include the increase of using hired assistance from experts and causing financial damages. Also, perpetrators of cyber terrorism are working together and moving to regions, where the laws and policies that govern cybercrime will not punish or restrict them. In addition, most cyber terrorists are choosing and modifying their attacks, to be undetected and establishing connections criminal organizations that can allow them to expand faster and wider. The vulnerabilities that are in different computer systems are also available for sale and botnets are increasingly becoming a major tool in the field of cyber terrorism. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Chapter This chapter will describe the methodology that will be used in gathering data and information that is relevant to the study. It is important, that the methodology should be described, because it will guide the study that has been proposed. The chapter contains, step by step, specific and detailed information about the processes that the study will employ and the instrumentation that will be employed in gathering data. Chapter organization The chapter will contain the method of Inquiry, a detailed description of the population and Sample, the instrumentation that will be used and the procedures. Method of Inquiry Learning about trends requires that information about the past be acquired. Therefore, a literature survey will be carried, and specific attention will be given to reports by CRS and reports from critical industry companies that have experiences cyber attack or cyber terrorism, over the last fifteen years. It is not enough to get information from reports, but also from those, who deal with the problems from a more tangible perspective. Thus, the reports from different critical industries will help in the provision of this information. Population and Sample The United States has been reported as being the hottest target for cyber terrorism with cyber attacks taking place ten times more than those of the nation that follows in number, China. As a result, the United States will be chosen, as the preferable population for its vast number of users and susceptibility to cyber attacks. In addition, it will be easier to establish a trend from a population that has experienced the problem numerous times. Within the US, three companies will be chosen, each to represent the critical industries, which are the finance industry, the government and communications, which will represent a power industry. The department of defense will be the government industry, Wall Street will be the financial one, and Microsoft will represent communications. Instrumentation The reports that are contained in the CRS spanning over the past fifteen years and similar ones, within the companies, will be analyzed. Literature surveys have often been used in carrying out studies that require information that is affected, altered or modified by a situation. Trends are an example of such information. The reports will provide information about the organizations, as a whole, while the literature surveys will provide information about the individuals within different companies. The key words that will be looked for in the literature surveys and reports include cyber terrorism, cyber attacks, hacking, computer security and cyber threats. This is because these words are often used in reports to describe a situation where there has been a breach or a threat to cyber security; including situations of cyber terrorism. Procedures The CRS reports will be obtained from the internet and the company reports on internet security, and vulnerability of infrastructure will be gathered from companies. Specific reports with information about cyber attacks that have been experiences and the inquiries that followed will be given priority. This is, because follow up reports will have information on vulnerability issues. The first step will be to get a research team together and inform them about the details of the research including what they need to look for. After this, the researchers will be divided into groups of three and offered and work station with a computer. Working in groups is known to produce better results, especially in literature surveys. Summary The purpose of this chapter was to explain the details of the methodology that will be used to collect information about the methods that will be used to inquire and attain information for this study, which includes literature survey and vignette results. The population that will be used for the study is the United States, and the sample will be workers and managers from finance, the government and power industries summing up to 45 people. Buy custom Vulnerability of Information Infrastructure and Trends of Cyber Terrorism essay

Definition and Examples of the Middle Style in Rhetoric

Definition and Examples of the Middle Style in Rhetoric In classical rhetoric, the middle style is reflected in speech or writing that (in terms of word choice, sentence structures, and delivery) falls between the extremes of the plain style and the grand style. Roman rhetoricians generally advocated the use of the plain style for teaching, the middle style for pleasing, and the grand style for moving an audience. See Examples and Observations below. Also see: DecorumLevels of UsageOn Familiar Style, by William HazlittStyle Examples and Observations An Example of the Middle Style: Steinbeck on the Urge to TravelWhen I was very young and the urge to be someplace was on me, I was assured by mature people that maturity would cure this itch. When years described me as mature, the remedy prescribed was middle age. In middle age I was assured that greater age would calm my fever and now that I am fifty-eight perhaps senility will do the job. Nothing has worked. Four hoarse blasts of a ships whistle still raise the hair on my neck and set my feet to tapping. The sound of a jet, an engine warming up, even the clopping of shod hooves on pavement brings on the ancient shudder, the dry mouth and vacant eye, the hot palms and the churn of stomach high up under the rib cage. In other words, I don’t improve; in further words, once a bum always a bum. I fear the disease is incurable. I set this matter down not to instruct others but to inform myself.(John Steinbeck, Travels with Charley: In Search of America. Viking, 1962)Three Kinds of StyleThe classical rhetoricians delineated three kinds of stylethe grand style, the middle style, and the plain style. Aristotle told his students that every kind of rhetorical style is capable of being used in season or out of season. They warned against the too grand style calling it swollen, or the too plain style which when misused they called meagre, and dry and bloodless. The middle style used inappropriately they called slack, without sinews and joints . . . drifting.(Winifred Bryan Horner, Rhetoric in the Classical Tradition. St. Martins, 1988) The Middle Style in Roman RhetoricThe speaker who sought to entertain his listeners would choose a middle style. Vigor was sacrificed for charm. Any and every form of ornamentation was appropriate, including the use of wit and humor. Such a speaker possessed the skill to develop arguments with breadth and erudition; he was master at amplification. His words were chosen for the effect they would produce on others. Euphony and imagery were cultivated. The overall effect was one of moderation and temperance, of polish and urbanity. This style of discourse, more than any other, typified Cicero himself and would later influence us in English through the marvelous prose style of Edmund Burke.(James L. Golden, The Rhetoric of Western Thought, 8th ed. Kendall/Hunt, 2004)The Tradition of the Middle Style- The Middle Style . . . resembles the simple in striving to communicate truth to the understanding with clearness, and resembles the grand in aiming to influence the feelings and passions. It is bolder and more profuse in the employment of figures and the various emphatic verbal forms, than the simple style; but does not use those appropriate to intense feeling, which are found in the grand.This style is employed in all compositions intended not only to inform and convince, but at the same time to move the feelings and passions. Its character varies with the predominance of one or other of these ends. When instruction and conviction are predominant, it approaches the lower style; when influencing the feelings is the main object, it partakes more of the character of the higher.(Andrew D. Hepburn, Manual of English Rhetoric, 1875)- The middle style is the style you dont notice, the style that does not show, ideal transparency. . . .To define a style in this way, of course, means that we cannot talk about the style itselfthe actual configuration of words on the pageat all. We must talk about the social substance surrounding it, the historical pattern of expectations which renders it transparent.(Richard Lanham, Analyzing Prose, 2nd ed. Continuum, 2003)- Ciceros idea of the middle style . . . lies between the ornateness and perorations of the grand or vigorous style (used for persuasion) and the simple words and conversational manner of the plain or low style (used for proof and instruction). Cicero designated the middle style as a vehicle for pleasure and defined it by what it is notnot showy, not highly figurative, not stiff, not excessively simple or terse. . . . The twentieth-century reformers, up to and beyond Strunk and White, were and are advocating their version of the middle style. . . .An accepted middle style exists for any form of writing you can think of: news stories in The New York Times, scholarly articles in the sciences or humanities, historical narratives, Web logs, legal decisions, romance or suspense novels, CD reviews in Rolling Stone, medical case studies.(Ben Yagoda, The Sound on the Page. Harper, 2004)

Improving Reading Comprehension Through Story Reading Essay

Improving Reading Comprehension Through Story Reading - Essay Example A related goal is helping students to practice the complex cognitive and linguistic operations brought about by reflective student engagement in critical thinking. The activities are planned for a particular story unit are all related to the story and the process of understanding the literature better. The goal of stories is to stimulate one’s thinking and imagination. The activities were designed based on Luke and Freebody’s Four Resource Model (1992). The Code Breaker activities aim to unlock difficult words that may serve as barriers to the readers’ full comprehension of the story. It also serves to clarify certain concepts that would facilitate the understanding of the story. The Meaning Maker activities test the readers’ pick up of concepts and how they may relate it to previous experiences or to practical situations in real life. Note that the activities do not necessarily relate to the story, but that is precisely how the text contributes to the readers’ literacy – applying concepts from the story to real life. 1. Sequencing Events: Have a number of strips of paper ready. On each strip, write down a phrase or sentence depicting a specific event in the story. Present the event strip to the class in a random order. Let them reconstruct the story using the event strips. 2. Making the Setting Concrete: Each child must come up with a creative brochure about the setting of the story. Pictures and diagrams/ drawings may be used, and a creative, persuasive text must be written to tell something about the place. 3. Let the children do a mind map of the story. With the main characters in the middle of the map, create branches and sub-branches of events to complete the story. Make headings of the branches are written and represent the events with drawings. One glance at the mind map will allow the viewer to decipher what the story is about.

Statistical Data Analysis and findings of a survey (the survey is part Statistics Project

Statistical Data Analysis and findings of a survey (the survey is part of an action research to investigate teacher training practices in Qatar) - Statistics Project Example A needs analysis survey in the first stage has been employed to collect data about issues in language teaching INSET in Qatar. It is important to emphasize that the use of this survey is for the purpose of needs analysis and is not based on any predetermined hypotheses. Using a survey in an early stage of my research project was intended to maximize the number of perspectives (Denscombe 1998: 169), and due to the versatile nature of surveys. Surveys can tap into attitudes that respondents are not completely aware of, and increase the consistency and reliability of the results through reducing the bias of interviewer effects (DÃ ¶rnyei & Taguchi 2010:6). The survey was administered online through a survey website (Surveymonkey.com). Online surveys are increasingly popular for data collection and preferred over traditional mail surveys in many ways (Pan 2010:121-122). They provide a lower cost option (Sheehan 1999:47), convenience in answering the survey (Evans & Mathur 2005:198) and respondents are also more likely to respond to sensitive and private questions (Ritter et al. 2004). The survey consisted of 70 items distributed under 7 categories in addition to a final open-ended question for respondents’ final comments. The table below shows the distribution of the survey items. The design of the survey was based on my initial literature review of the study and guided by the main aim of the survey which is to provide directions for the intervention design. As discussed in the first panel report, for INSET programs to be successful, teachers’ voice should be heard and taken into consideration (Locke 2006). As a result, most of the items of the survey are intended to capture teachers’ voice and concerns. Items 4-40 elicit data on preferences of delivery methods, training themes and assessment tools. Items 41-66 seek to